The Hebrew or Jewish calendar ( ????????????????????? Ha-Luah ha-Ivri ) is the lunisolar calendar used today primarily for Judaism. It specifies dates for Jewish holidays and proper public readings of the sections of the Torah, yahrzeits (the date to commemorate the death of a relative), and the daily psalm reading, among many ceremonial uses. In Israel, it is used for religious purposes, provides a time frame for agriculture and is an official calendar for civilian purposes, although recent use has steadily declined in favor of the Gregorian calendar.
The present Hebrew calendar is a product of evolution, including the influence of Babylon. Until the Tannaitic period (about 10-220 CE), the calendar uses a new crescent, with an additional month usually added every two or three years to correct the difference between the twelve lunar and solar months. The year in which it was added was based on observations of events related to natural agriculture in Israel. Through the Amora period (200-500 CE) and entering the Geonic period, the system is gradually replaced by the mathematical rules used today. The principles and rules were fully codified by Maimonides at Mishneh Torah in the 12th century. Maimonides's work also replaces the "count since the destruction of the Temple" with the modern creation era of Anno Mundi.
The Hebrew lunar year is about eleven days shorter than the sun year and uses a 19-year Metonic cycle to make it in line with the solar year, with the addition of a leap month every two or three years, for a total of seven times per 19 years. Even with this intercalation, the average Hebrew calendar year is longer about 6 minutes and 40 seconds than the current tropical year average, so that every 216 calendar year of the Hebrew will fall one day behind the current tropical year; and every 231 years it will fall a day behind the Gregorian calendar year on average.
The era used since the Middle Ages was the time of Anno Mundi (Latin for "the year of the world"; Hebrew: Ã, ?????? ?? ?? ? ?, "from the creation of the world"). As well as Anno Domini (AD or AD), the words or abbreviations for Anno Mundi (AM or AM) for the era should be correctly preceded < date of following.
AM 5778 starts at sunset on September 20, 2017 and will end at sunset on September 9, 2018.
Video Hebrew calendar
Components
Day and time
The Jewish day does not have a fixed length. The Jewish day is modeled on the reference to "... there is night and there in the morning..." in the story of creation in Genesis chapter one. Based on this classical rabbinical interpretation of this text, one day in the Hebrew rabbinic calendar goes from the setting sun (beginning of "night") to the next sunset. The saga, one day ends and the new one begins when three stars are visible in the sky. The time between true sunsets and the time when three visible stars (known as 'tzait ha'kochavim') is known as 'bein hashmashot', and there is a difference of opinion about that day falling into several uses. This may be relevant, for example, in determining the birth date of a child born during the gap.
There are no clocks in the Jewish scheme, so local civilian hours are used. Although civilian hours, including those used in Israel, incorporate local adoptions from various conventions such as time zones, standard time and daylight savings, this has no place in the Jewish scheme. The civil hour is only used as a reference point - in expressions like: "Shabbat starts at...". The steady progress of sunsets around the world and seasonal changes result in gradual civil time shifts from one day to the next according to observable astronomical phenomena (sunset) and not to man-made laws and conventions.
In Judaism, an hour is defined as 1/12 time from sunrise to sunset, so, during winter, an hour can be far less than 60 minutes, and during the summer, it can be more than 60 minutes. This proportional hour is known as sha'ah z'manit (lit on time). The Jewish Hour is divided into 1080 halakim (singular: helek ) or section. Section is 3 1/3 sec or 1 / 18 minute. The chief ancestor of the helek is a small Babylonian time period called barleycorn , itself equal to 1 / 72 from the time of Babylon degree (1 Â ° of the celestial rotation). These measures are generally not used for everyday purposes.
Instead of international convention dates, there are various opinions about where the day is changing. One opinion uses the antimeridian of Jerusalem. (Jerusalem is 35 Â ° 13 'east of the main meridian, so the antimeridian is at 144 Â ° 47' W, past eastern Alaska.) Another opinion also exists. (See International date lines in Judaism.)
The working day starts with Sunday (day 1, or Yom Rishon ) and continues to Saturday (7th day), Shabbat. Since some calculations use division, the remaining 0 denotes Saturday.
While the calculation of days, months and years based on clock remains the same as 1 / 24 days, the beginning of every day halachic is based on the local time of sunset. The final Shabbat and other Jewish holidays are based on the nightfall ( Tzeth haKochabim ) that takes place some time, usually 42 to 72 minutes, after sunset. According to Maimonides, dusk occurs when three medium-sized stars become visible after sunset. In the 17th century, this has been a three-second star. The modern definition is when the center of the sun is 7 Â ° below the geometric horizon (stuffy), rather later than the civilian twilight at 6 Â °. The beginning of the daytime part of the day is determined both by dawn and sunrise. Most of the time halachic is based on some combination of these four times and varies from day to day throughout the year and also varies significantly depending on location. Day hours are often divided into Sha'oth Zemaniyoth or Halachic clock by taking between sunrise and sunset or between dawn and night and dividing it into the same 12 hours. The curfew is also divided into 12 equal parts, although the amount of time is different from the "clock" during the day. The earliest and most recent moments for Jewish service, the last time to eat chametz on the day before Easter and many other rules are based on Sha'oth Zemaniyoth . For convenience, the modern day using Sha'oth Zemaniyoth is often discussed as if the sun sets at 6:00 pm, the sun rises at 6:00 and every hour equals fixed hours. For example, halachic may be after 1:00 in some areas during summer time. Inside the Misnah, however, clocking starts with the "first" hour after the beginning of the day.
Week
Shavua is a seven-day weekly cycle, reflecting the seven-day period of the Book of Genesis in which the world was created. The names for the days of the week, as in the creation account, were just days of the week, with Shabbat being the seventh day. Every day of the week runs from sunset to the next sunset and predicted locally.
Business day names
The Hebrew calendar follows the seven-day weekly cycle, which runs simultaneously with but apart from the monthly and annual cycles. The names for the days of the week are just the number of days of the week. In Hebrew, these names can be abbreviated using numerical values ​​of Hebrew letters, eg ??? ?? ? ( Day 1 , or Yom Rishon ( ??? ????? ?)):
- Yom Rishon - ??? ????? ? (abbreviated ???? ?), which means "first day" [corresponding to Sunday] (starting at sundown Saturday)
- Yom Sheni - ??? ??? ? (abbr. ???? ?) which means "second day" [in accordance with Monday]
- Yom Shlishi - ??? ????? ? (abbr. ???? ?) which means "third day"
- Yom Revi? I - ??? ????? ? (abbr. ????? ?) which means "fourth day"
- Yom Chamishi - ??? ????? ? (abbr. ???? ?) = "fifth day" [corresponding to Thursday]
- Yom Shishi - ??? ??? ? (abbr. ???? ?) which means "the sixth day"
- Yom Shabbat - ??? ??? ? (abbr. ???? ?), or more usually, just Shabbat - ??? ? means "rest day" [in accordance with Saturday]
Yom Shabbat ( ????? ?) Also known as Yom Shabbat Kodesh - ??? ??? ???? ? means "holy day of rest."
The names of the days of the week are modeled on the seven days mentioned in the creation story. For example, Genesis 1: 5 "... And there was evening and be morning, a day". One ( ???? ????? ?) in Genesis 1:15 is translated into JPS as the first >, and in some other context (including KJV) as the first day . In later verses, the Hebrew word refers to days using sequential numbers, for example, 'the second day', 'the third day', and so on, but with the sixth and seventh day, the Hebrew included a definite article ("the" ).
Rest day, Shabbat, has a special role in the Jewish weekly cycle as a special and separate day, where no work is done. There are many specific rules relating to Shabbat, which are discussed more fully in Talatud Shabbat.
In Hebrew (Talmud), the word Shabbat ( ??????? ?) Can also mean "week", so in the liturgy of the phrase ritual such as "Yom Revi? ib? Shabbat" means "fourth day of the week".
Holiday days
The period of 1 ADAR (or Adar II, in a leap year) to 29 Marcheshvan contains all the festivals specified in the Bible - Purim (14 Adar), Pesach (15 Nisan), Shavuot (6 Sivan), Rosh Hashanah (1 Tishrei), Yom Kippur (10 Tishrei), Sukkot (15 Tishrei), and Shemini Atzeret (22 Tishrei). This period is fixed, where no adjustments are made.
There are additional rules in the Hebrew calendar to prevent certain holidays from falling on certain days of the week. (See the Rosh Hashanah delay rule below.) These rules are implemented by adding an extra day to Marcheshvan (making it 30 days long) or by removing a day from Kislev (making it 29 days). Thus, the general Hebrew calendar year can have a length of 353, 354 or 355 days, while the Hebrew calendar year of the leap can have a length of 383, 384 or 385 days.
Month
The Hebrew Calendar is a lunisolar calendar, meaning the moon is based on the lunar month, but the year is based on the year of the sun. The calendar year displays twelve months of twenty-nine or thirty days, with intercalary lunar periods added periodically to synchronize twelve lunar cycles with longer solar years. (These additional months are added seven times every nineteen years, see Leap month, below.) The beginning of each Jewish lunar month is based on the appearance of the new moon. Although initially the new crescent moon should be observed and certified by witnesses, the moment of the new moon is actually now estimated arithmetically as molad, which is the average of the new moon at the accuracy of one part.
The average period of the lunar month (precisely, the sinodic month) is very close to 29.5 days. Thus, the basic Hebrew calendar year is one of the twelve lunar months alternating between 29 and 30 days:
In leap year (such as 5779) additional months, Adar I (30 days) is added after Shevat, while Adar is commonly referred to as "Adar II."
The insertion of the leap month mentioned above is based on the requirement that Passover - a festival celebrating the exodus from Egypt, which takes place in spring - always occurs in the spring [northern hemisphere]. Since the adoption of the fixed calendar, intercalation in the Hebrew calendar has been fixed for fixed points in the 19-year cycle. Prior to this, intercalation was determined empirically:
The year can be intercalated on three grounds: 'aviv [ie maturity of wheat], fruit trees, and equinoxes. For these two reasons must be interspersed, but not one of them.
Importance of lunar month
Since ancient times, the Mesopotamian lunisolar calendar has been widely used by western-western countries. The structure, which is also used by Israel, is based on the lunar month with an additional month intercalation to bring the cycles closer to the solar cycle, although there is no evidence of the thirteenth month mentioned anywhere in the Hebrew Bible.
No. 10:10 emphasizes the importance of Israel's religious obedience on the new moon (Hebrew: ?????? ?, Rosh Chodesh, "the beginning of the month"): "... in your new moons, you will blow with the trumpet on your burnt sacrifice... "Likewise in Num 28:11. "The beginning of the month" means the emergence of the new moon, and in Ex 12: 2. "This month is for you".
According to Mishnah and Tosefta, in the Maccabean period, Herodian, and Mishnaic, new moons were determined by the new crescent, with two eyewitnesses required to testify to the Sanhedrin to see the new moon of the lunar crescent sunset. Training in the Gamaliel II period (c.100 CE) is for witnesses to choose the moon's appearance from a collection of images depicting crescent in various orientations, few that can take effect in months. This observation is compared to calculations.
At the beginning of each month the Jews signaled to the community of Israel and its surroundings with fire burning on the top of the mountain, but after the Samaritans started a false fire, the messenger was sent. The inability of couriers to reach communities outside of Israel before the mid-month High Day (Succot and Easter) leads a remote community to celebrate the scripture festival for two days rather than a day, observing the second holiday of the Jewish diaspora due to uncertainty over whether the previous month ended after 29 or 30 days.
In his Mishneh Torah (1178), Maimonides included a chapter on "Sanctification of the New Moon", where he discussed their calendar and biblical basics. He notes,
"With how many years the sun exceeds the lunar year? About 11 days.Therefore, whenever the excess is accumulated to about 30 days, or slightly more, one month is added and a particular year is made up of 13 months, and this is the year called embolismic (intercalated).For a year can not consist of twelve months plus so many days, for it says: throughout the months of the year (Num 28:14), which implies that we must count the year by month and not day. "
Name of the month
The second Syrian calendar, currently used in Arab-speaking countries from the Crescent Moon, and the modern Assyrian calendar shares many names for months with the Hebrew calendar, such as Nisan, Iyyar, Tammuz, Ab, Elul, Tishri, and Adar. , showing the same origin. Originally originated as Babylonian calendar. Modern Turkish calendar includes names? Medicines (February), Nisan (April), Temmuz (July) and Eylul (September). The old name for October is Tesrin.
Biblical references to the pre-disposal calendar include ten months identified by number and not by name. In the section of Torah Noach ("Noah") (specifically, Genesis 7:11, 8: 3-4, 8: 13-14) it is implied that the month is thirty days. There is also an indication that there are twelve months in the annual cycle (1 Kings 4: 7, 1 Chronicles 27: 1-15). Before the Babylonian exile, the names of only four months were referred to in Tanakh:
- Aviv - the first month - literally "spring" (Exodus 12: 2, 13: 4, 23:15, 34:18, Deuteronomy 16: 1);
- Ziv - the second month - literally "mild" (1 Kings 6: 1, 6:37);
- Ethanim - the seventh month - literally "strong" in the plural, probably referring to the strong rain (1 Kings 8: 2); and
- Bul - the eighth month (1 Kings 6:38).
All this is believed to be the name of Canaan. These names are only mentioned in connection with the building of the First Temple. Ulfgard suggests that the use of rare Canaan names (or in the case of Ethanim perhaps Northwest-semitic) suggests that "the author consciously uses ancient terminology, thus giving the impression of an ancient tale...".
In the normal year ( kesidran ), Marcheshvan has 29 days and Kislev has 30 days. However, due to the Rosh Hashanah delay rule (see below) Kislev can lose a day to have 29 days, and the year is referred to as short years ( chaser ), or Marcheshvan can earn an additional day to have 30 days , and the year is called full year ( maleh ). The calendar rules have been designed to ensure that Rosh Hashanah does not fall on Sunday, Wednesday or Friday. This is to ensure that Yom Kippur does not directly precede or follow the Shabbat, which will create practical difficulties, and that the Hoshana Rabbah is not in the Shabbat, in which case certain rites will be lost for a year.
Leap month
The year of the sun is about eleven days longer than the twelve lunar months. The Bible does not directly mention the addition of "embolismic" moons or liturgical moons. However, without the insertion of the embryonic moon, the Jewish festival will gradually shift beyond the season required by the Torah. This has been ruled as implying a requirement for the embolic insertion of moons to reconcile the moon-to-season cycle, which is an integral part of the solar cycle's annual cycle.
When a calendar observation form is used, whether or not the embolismic month is announced after "last month" (Adar) depends on 'aviv [ie, barley maturity], fruit trees, and equinoxes. For these two reasons it should be interspersed, but not one of them. It should be noted that in the Bible the name of the first month, Aviv , literally means "spring". So, if Adar is over and the spring has not yet arrived, an additional month is observed.
Traditionally, for Babylonian and Hebrew lunisolar calendars, years 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19 are long Metonic cycles (13 months). This cycle forms the basis of the Christian ecclesiastical calendar and the Hebrew calendar and is used for the calculation of the date of the Passover each year
During the leap year Adar I (or Adar Aleph - "Adar first") is added before the regular Adar. Adar I is actually considered an additional month, and has 30 days. Adar II (or Adar Bet - "Adar second") is the "real" Adar, and has 29 ordinary days. For this reason, holidays like Purim are observed in Adar II, not Adar I.
Constellation
Chronology is a major consideration in astronomical studies among Jews; holy time is based on the cycle of the Sun and the Moon. The Talmud identifies twelve constellations of the zodiac with twelve Hebrew calendar months. Correspondence constellations with their names in Hebrew and moon are as follows:
- Aries - Taleh - Nisan
- Taurus - Shor - Iyar
- Gemini - Teomim - Sivan
- Cancer - Sartan - Tammuz
- Leo - Arye - Av
- Virgo - Betulah - Elul
- Libra - Moznayim - Tishrei
- Scorpio - 'Familiar - Marcheshvan
- Sagittarius - Keshet - Kislev
- Capricorn - Gdi - Tevet
- Aquarius - Dli - Shevat
- Pisces - Dagim - Adar
Some experts identify 12 zodiac signs with 12 sons of Jacob/twelve tribes of Israel. It should be noted that the 12 months of the Hebrew calendar month are the normal months of the new month to the new moon: the year usually contains twelve months on average of 29.52 days each. Non-conformity compared to the 29.53-day synod month average is because Adar I in leap year always has thirty days. This means that calendar year usually contains 354 days.
Year
The conventional Hebrew calendar year begins in Rosh Hashanah. However, other dates serve as the beginning of the year for different religious purposes.
There are three qualities that distinguish one year from another year: whether it is a leap year or an ordinary year, in which of the four days allowed in the week of that year begins, and whether it is a less, regular, or complete year. Mathematically, there are 24 (2ÃÆ' â € "4ÃÆ' â €" 3) possible combinations, but only 14 of which are valid. Each of these patterns is called keviyah (Hebrew word ????? for "setting" or "something established"), and is encoded as a series of two or three Hebrew letters. See Four gates.
In Hebrew there are two general ways of writing the year number: with thousands, called ???? ???? ? ("primary era"), and without thousands, is called ???? ??? ? ("minor era"). Thus, this year is written as ? '??? "? ? (5778) using" main era "and ???" ? ? (778) using the "minor era".
Anno Mundi
In 1178 CE, Maimonides writes in Mishneh Torah , Sanctification of the Moon (11.16), that he has chosen an age from which the calculation of all dates should be "Nisan's third day of the year... which is the year 4938 of the creation of the world "(March 22, 1178). He included all the rules for the countless calendar and the basis of their scriptures, including the modern year in his work, and began the formal use of the anno mundi era. From the eleventh century, the marriage of anno mundi became dominant in most of the world's Jewish communities. Today, the rules detailed in the Maimonides calendar code are commonly used by Jewish communities around the world.
Since codification by Maimonides in 1178, the Jewish calendar has used the Anno Mundi period (Latin for "in the world year," abbreviated AM or AM , Hebrew ?????????? ?), sometimes referred to as the "Hebrew era", to distinguish it from other systems based on some calculations of creation, such as Byzantine calendar.
There have also been references in the Talmud for many years since the creation of the calculations in the Rabbit of the Rabbis of Jose ben Halafta around AD 160. By his calculations, based on the Masoretic Text, Adam was created in 3760 BC, later confirmed by chronologically Muslim al-Biruni as 3448 years before the Seleucid era. An example is c. 8th century Baraita from Samuel.
According to rabbinic calculations, the beginning of "year 1" is not Creation, but about one year before Creation, with the new moon of the first month (Tishrei) to be called molad tohu (new moon which means out of chaos or nothing). The Jewish calendar date (reference date), 1 Tishrei AM 1, is equivalent to Monday, October 7, 3761 BC/BCE in the Julian proleptic calendar, the equivalent tabular date (same day period) and about one year before < i> date of traditional Jewish Creation on 25 Elul 1, based on Seder Olam Rabbah . Thus, adding 3760 before Rosh Hashanah or 3761 after the Julian year number starting from 1 CE (AD 1) will result in the Hebrew year. For the previous years there may be a difference [see: Lost year (Jewish calendar)].
The Seder Olam Rabbah also recognizes the importance of the Jubilee and Sabbath cycle as a long-term calendar system, and strives in various places to fit the Sabbatical and Jubilee years into its chronological scheme.
Sometimes, Anno Mundi is set up as Anno Hebraico (AH) , although this is subject to confusion with the notation for the Islamic Hijri year.
Previous system
Prior to the adoption of the current AM numbering system, other systems are in use. In the early days, the years were calculated from several significant historical events. (eg, 1 Kings 6: 1) During the period of the monarchy, it was widespread practice in West Asia to use the year number of the era according to the year of accession of the king of the countries involved. This practice was also followed by the united kingdom of Israel (eg, 1 Kings 14:25), the kingdom of Judah (eg, 2 Kings 18:13), the kingdom of Israel (eg 2 Kings 17: 6), Persian (eg, Nehemiah 2: 1) and others. In addition, the King's authors coordinate dates in the two kingdoms by granting years of accession to a king in terms of other royal kingdoms, (eg, 2 Kings 8:16) although some commentators noted that these dates were not always synchronized. Other era dating systems have been used at other times. For example, the Jewish community in the Babylonian diaspora calculated the years of the first deportation from Israel, namely Jehoiachin in 597 BC, (eg, Ezekiel 1: 1-2). It was then called "the year of captivity of Yoyakhin". (eg, 2 Kings 25:27)
During the Hellenistic Maccabean period, Seleucia era calculations were used, at least in the Israeli-influenced region of Greece. The Books of the Maccabees uses the Seleucid era dating exclusively (eg, 1 Maccabees 1:54, 6:20, 7: 1, 9: 3, 10: 1). The writings of Josephus in the Roman period also use the Seleucian era that is dating exclusively. During the Talmudic era, from 1st to 10th centuries, the center of world Judaism was in the Middle East, especially at the Talmud Academy of Iraq and Palestine. Jews in these areas use the Seleucian era dating (also known as the "Contract Age"). Avodah Zarah states:
Rav Aha b. Jacob then asks this question: How do we know that our Era [Document] is connected with the Greek Empire at all? Why not say that it counts from the exodus from Egypt, ignore the first thousand years and give the next thousand years? In this case, the document is completely outdated!
Rav Nahman says: In Diaspora, the Greek Era is used. He [the questioner] thought that Rav Nahman wanted to throw him out anyway, but when he went and studied it thoroughly he found that it was indeed taught [in Baraita]: In Diaspora, the Greek Era was used.
The use of the document era (ie, the Seleucid era) continued into the 16th century in the East, and was used even in the 19th century among Jews in Yemen.
Sometimes in Talmudic writings, references are made to other starting points for the era, such as the postponement of the era of destruction, into the number of years since the destruction of AD 70 of the Second Temple. In the 8th and 9th centuries, as the center of Jewish life moved from Babylon to Europe, counting using the Seleucid era "becomes meaningless". There are indications that the Jews in Rhineland in the early Middle Ages used "the years after the destruction of the Temple" (eg, Mainz Anonymous).
New year
Exodus 12: 2 and Deuteronomy 16: 1 set Aviv (now Nisan) as "the first month":
- this month will be your beginning of the month; this will be the first month of the year for you.
Nisan 1 is called the new year ecclesiastical .
In ancient Israel, the start of the ecclesial New Year to count the moon and festival (ie, Nisan) was determined by reference to the Passover. The Passover is on the 15th of Nisan, (Leviticus 23: 4-6) which corresponds to the full moon of Nisan. Since Passover is a spring festival, it should fall on a full moon day around, and usually right after that, the vernal turning point (north). If the full twelfth month after the previous Easter is too early compared to the equinox, the leap month is inserted near the end of the previous year before the new year begins. According to normative Judaism, the verses in Exodus 12: 1-2 require that the months be determined by a proper court with the authority required to sanctify the moon. Therefore the court, not astronomy, has a final decision.
According to some Christian and Karaite sources, the tradition in ancient Israel was that 1 Nisan would not begin until the barley was cooked, a test for the beginning of spring. If the barley is not cooked, a leap month will be added before Nisan.
The day most often referred to as the "New Year" is 1 Tishrei, which actually begins in the seventh month of the ecclesiastical year. On that day the official New Year for year counting (like Shmita and Yovel), Rosh Hashanah ("head of the year") was observed. (see Ezekiel 40: 1, which uses the phrase "the beginning of the year".) This is the new year civilian , and the date on which the year's number rises. Certain agricultural practices are also marked since this date.
In the 1st century, Josephus stated that while -
Moses... pointed to Nisan... as the first month of the festival... the beginning of the year for all things pertaining to divine worship, but to sell and to buy and other ordinary affairs he preserved the ancient order [i. e. year begins with Tishrei]. "
Edwin Thiele concludes that the Northern Kingdom of ancient Israel counted the years by using the ecclesiastical new year beginning at 1 Aviv (Nisan), while the southern kingdom of Judah counted the years using the new civilian year begins on 1 Tishrei. The practice of the Kingdom of Israel is also from Babylon, as well as other countries in the region. The practice of Judah is still followed.
Even the Jewish calendar has many new years for different purposes. Use of these dates has been used for a long time. The use of multiple start dates for a year is proportional to the different start date for civilian "calendar year," "tax or fiscal year", "academic year", "religious cycle", etc. At the time of the editorial Mishnah , Rosh Hashanah 1: 1 (about 200 AD), the jurists have identified four new year dates:
Nisan 1 is the new year for kings and parties; the 1st of Elul is the new year for tithing of cattle... 1 Tishri is a new year for many years, years of liberation and years of jubilee, for planting and for vegetables; and 1 Shevat is the new year for the tree - so Shammai school; and Hillel's school said: On December 15th.
The Moon of Elul is the new year to calculate the tithe ( ma'aser behemah ). Tu Bishvat ("15th Shevat") marks the new year for the tree (and the tithe of agriculture).
For Jewish New Year dates, see Jewish and Israeli festivals 2000-2050 or calculate using the "Conversion between Jewish and civil calendars" section.
Leap year
The Jewish calendar is based on a 19-year Metonic cycle, of which 12 years is common (non-jump) of 12 months and 7 is a 13-month leap year. To determine whether the Jewish year is a leap year, one must find its position in the 19-year Metonic cycle. This position is calculated by dividing the Jewish year number by 19 and finding the rest. For example, the Jewish year 5778 divided by 19 results in the remaining 2, indicating that it is the 2nd year of the Metonic cycle. Since there is no year 0, the remaining 0 indicates that the year is the 19th year of the cycle.
Years 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19 of the Metonic cycle are leap years. To help remember this sequence, some people use the Hebrew word mnemonic GUCHADZaT "??????"? "?, Where the Hebrew letter gimel-vav- het aleph-dalet-zayin-tet is used as Hebrew numbers equivalent to 3, 6, 8, 1, 4, 7, 9. keviyah notes whether the year is a leap or a general: for peshuta (?????), which means simple and shows a common year, and ? marks a leap year (me'uberet, ??????).
Other memory aids note that the major scale interval follows the same pattern as the Jewish leap years, by performing according to the 19 (or 0) years: all steps in this scale correspond to the two years common between the years leap in a row, and a half-step toward the same year between two leap years. This relationship with the major scale is more apparent in the context of the same 19 temperament: counting the tonic as 0, the tone of the major scale in the same 19 temperaments is the number 0 (or 19), 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, the same as the leap year in the Hebrew calendar.
A simple rule to determine if a year is a leap year has been given above. However, there are other rules that not only tell whether the year is a leap but also provide a fraction of the month in which the calendar is behind the season, useful for agricultural purposes. To determine whether the year n of the calendar is a leap year, find the remainder in the division [Ã, Ã, Ã, Ã, Ã, Ã, Ã, Ã, Ã, Ã, 1] at 19. If the remaining 6 or less is a leap year; if 7 or more do not. For example, the rest to divide [(7Ã, Â ± 5778) 1] by 19 is 15, so 5778 is not a leap year. The rest to divide [(7Ã, Â ± 5779) 1] by 19 is 3, so 5779 is a leap year. This works because because there are seven leap years in nineteen years, the difference between the sun and the moon increases 7/19-months per year. When the difference occurs over 18/19-months, this indicates a leap year, and the difference is reduced by one month.
Rosh Hashanah's delay rule
To count the days in which Rosh Hashanah a particular year will fall, it is first necessary to calculate the expected molad (conjunction month or new moon) of Tishrei that year, and then apply a set of rules to determine whether the first day of the year should be postponed. Molad can be calculated by multiplying the number of months that will elapse since some (before) molad whose working day is known as the average length of the lunar (synodic) month, ie 29 days, 12 hours, and 793 parts (there are 1080 "parts" in one h, so one part equals 3 1 / 3 second). The first molad, toun molad, falls on Sunday night at 11:11 1 / 3 , or in Jewish terms Day 2, 5 hours, and 204 parts.
In calculating the number of months that will pass since the known molad is used as a starting point, one must remember to include a leap month that falls within the interval that has been passed, according to the leap year cycle. The 19-year cycle of 235 synodic months has 991 weeks 2 days 16 hours 595 parts, the general year of the 12 month synod has 50 weeks 4 days 8 hours 876 parts, while leap year of 13 month synod has 54 weeks 5 days 21 hours 589 part.
The two months that may have been adjusted, Marcheshvan and Kislev, are the eighth and ninth month of the Hebrew year, while Tishrei is the seventh month (in the traditional calculations of the months, even the first month of the new calendar year). Any adjustments necessary to postpone Rosh Hashanah should be made in the adjustable months of the year preceding the year in which Rosh Hashanah will be the first day.
Only four potential conditions are considered to determine whether the Rosh Hashanah date should be postponed. This is called the Rosh Hashanah delay rule, or de? Iyyot :
- If the molad occurs at or later than noon, Rosh Hashanah is suspended a day. This is called de? Iyyah molad zaken (literally, "old birth", ie, the end of new moon).
- If the molad occurs on Sunday, Wednesday, or Friday, Rosh Hashanah is postponed a day. If applying de? Iyyah molad zaken will place Rosh Hashanah on one of these days, then it should be postponed the second day. This is called de? Iyyah lo ADU, an acronym which means "not [one] work day, four, or six."
The first of these rules (de? Iyyah molad zaken ) is mentioned in the Talmud. Currently, moly zaken is used as a tool to prevent molad from falling on the second day of the month. The second rule, (de? Iyyah lo ADU ), is applied for religious reasons.
Two other rules are applied less frequently and serve to prevent unauthorized year length. Their name is a Hebrew acronym that refers to the way they are counted:
- If the molad in the same year falls on a Tuesday after 9 hours and 204 sections, Rosh Hashanah is postponed until Thursday. This is de? Iyyah GaTaRaD , where the acronym stands for "3 [Tuesday], 9, 204."
- If the molad after leap year falls on Monday, over 15 hours and 589 parts after the Hebrew day begins (for calculation purposes, this is taken to 6 pm Sunday), Rosh Hashanah is postponed until Tuesday. This is de? Iyyah BeTUTeKaPoT, where the acronym stands for "2 [Monday], 15, 589."
On the innards innovation, the calendar is set to ensure that Yom Kippur will not fall on Friday or Sunday, and the Hoshana Rabbah will not fall on Shabbat. These rules have been institutionalized because Shabbat restrictions also apply to Yom Kippur, so if Yom Kippur falls on Friday, it is impossible to make necessary preparations for Shabbat (such as candlelight lighting). Similarly, if Yom Kippur falls on Sunday, it is impossible to make preparations for Yom Kippur because the previous day was Shabbat. In addition, Shabbat laws rule out the Hoshana Rabbah, so if the Hoshana Rabbah falls on the Sabbath, certain rituals that are part of the Rabbah Hoshana service (such as carrying willow, which is a form of work) can not be done..
To prevent Yom Kippur (10 Tishrei) from Friday or Sunday, Rosh Hashanah (1 Tishrei) can not fall on Wednesday or Friday. Likewise, to prevent Hoshana Rabbah (21 Tishrei) from falling on Saturday, Rosh Hashanah can not fall on Sunday. It's only four days where Rosh Hashanah could fall: Monday, Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday, referred to as "four gates". Each day is associated with numbers (the order of the week, starting with Sunday as day 1). The numbers in Hebrew are traditionally written in Hebrew. So keviyah use those letters? ,? ,? and? (representing 2, 3, 5, and 7, for Monday, Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday) to show the day earlier this year.
Less perfect, orderly, and finish year
The year delay is compensated by adding one day to the second month or removing one from the third month. The general year of the Jews can only have 353, 354, or 355 days. Leap year is always 30 days longer, and can have 383, 384, or 385 days.
- Year chaserah (Hebrew for "deficiency" or "incomplete") is 353 or 383 days. Both Cheshvan and Kislev have 29 days. Hebrew letters? "Het" is used in keviyah .
- The year the "regular" or "in-order" is 354 or 384 days. Cheshvan has 29 days while Kislev has 30 days. Hebrew letters? "kaf" is used in keviyah .
- The year shrine ("complete" or "perfect", also "abundant") is 355 or 385 days. Both Cheshvan and Kislev have 30 days. Hebrew letters? "Shin" is used in keviyah .
Whether one year is less, regular, or complete is determined by the time between two adjacent Rosh Hashanah festivals and leap years. While keviyah is sufficient to describe a year, a variation determines the day of the week for the first day of Pesach (Passover) as a replacement year-round.
The Metonic cycle is equivalent to 235 lunar months in every 19-year cycle. This gives an average of 6939 days, 16 hours, and 595 parts for each cycle. However, due to the Rosh Hashanah delay rule (previous section), the Jewish 19-year cycle can be 6939, 6940, 6941, or 6942 days. Since none of these values ​​are evenly divided by seven, the Jewish calendar repeats exactly after only 36,288 Metonic cycles, or 689,472 Jewish years. There is a repetition of almost every 247 years, except for an excess of about 50 minutes (905 parts).
Four gates
The yearly numbered Hebrew calendar, shown as 12 or 13 months partitioned into weeks, can be determined by consultation of the Four gates table, whose input is this year's position in the 19-year cycle and the Tishrei's molad. The resulting type ( keviyah ) of the desired year in the body of the table is a triple consisting of two numbers and letters (written left-to-right in English). The left number every three is the day of the week 1 Tishrei , Rosh Hashanah (2 3 5 7) ; the letter indicates whether the year is short (D), regular (R), or complete (C), number of days in Chesvan and Kislev; while the exact number of every three is the day of 15 Nisan , the first day of Passover or Pesach (1 3 5 7) , in the same Hebrew year (the next Julian/Gregorian ). The keviyah in the Hebrew letter is written right-to-left, so that their days of the week are reversed, the exact number for 1 Tishrei and left for 15 Nisan . The year in the 19-year cycle alone determines whether the year has one or two Adars.
This table calculates the days of the week and the hours for the Tishrei molad boundary in the Hebrew way for calendar calculations, that is, they start at 6 pm , so 7d 18h ​​ Afternoon Saturday. The 19-year cycle years are arranged in four groups: general years after leap year but before general year (1 4 9 12 15) ; general years between two leap years (7 18) ; general years after the common year but before leap year (2 5 10 13 16) ; and leap year (3 6 8 11 14 17 19) , all between the normal years. The oldest table of Four gates was written by Saadia Gaon (892-942). So named because it identifies four days allowed in a week where 1 Tishrei can occur.
Comparing the days of Molad Tishrei's week with those at keviyah shows that for 39% of the 1 Tishrei year was not delayed beyond Molad Tishrei's Sunday, 47% was postponed one day, and 14% delayed two days. This table also identifies seven general year types and seven leap year types. Most are represented in every 19-year cycle, except for one or two cycles in adjacent cycles. The most likely type is 5R7 in 18.1% year, while the most likely is 5C1 in 3.3% year. Day of week 15 Nisan slower than 1 Tishrei for one, two or three days for ordinary years and three, four or five days for leap year in less, year regular or complete, respectively.
Holiday
Look at the Jewish and Israeli holidays from 2000 to 2050
Maps Hebrew calendar
History
Mishnaic Period
Tanakh contains several commands related to the maintenance of the calendar and the month cycle, and note the changes that have occurred in the Hebrew calendar.
It has been noted that the procedure described in Misnah and Tosefta are all reasonable procedures for regulating empirical lunar calendars. Fire signals, for example, or smoke signals, are known from Lachish ostraca pre-disposal. Furthermore, the Mishnah contains laws reflecting the uncertainty of the empirical calendar. The Mishnah Sanhedrin, for example, states that when a witness states that an event occurred on a certain day of the month, and the other that the same event occurred the next day their testimony can be held for approval, since the previous month's length is uncertain. Other Mishnah assumes it is natural that it can not be known in advance whether the lease year is for twelve or thirteen months. It is therefore a plausible conclusion that the Mishnaic calendar is actually used in the Mishnaic period.
The accuracy of Misnah's claim that the Mishnaic calendar is also used at the end of the Second Temple period is less certain. A scholar has noted that there is no law from the sources of the Second Temple period which indicates any doubt about the length of a month or a year. This leads him to suggest that priests should have some calendar form or calendar rules taken into account that allow them to know in advance whether a month will have 30 or 29 days, and whether a year will have 12 or 13 months.
Modern calendar
Between 70 and 1178 CE, an observational based calendar is gradually replaced by a mathematically calculated one. Except for the number of years, calendar rules reached their present form at the beginning of the 9th century, as described by the Muslim astronomer Persia al-Khwarizmi (c. 780-850 AD) in 823.
One important difference between the calendar of the era and the modern form is the date of the epos (a reference point fixed at the beginning of year 1), which at that time was a year later than the modern calendar.
Most of the calendar rules are present in place by 823, according to a treatise by al-Khwarizmi. Al-Khwarizmi's study of the Jewish calendar, Ris? La fi istikhr? J ta? R? Kh al-yah? D "Extraction of the Jewish Era" describes the 19-year intercalary cycle, the rule to determine on what day of the first week of the first day of the Tishr month? will fall, the interval between the Jewish era (Adam's creation) and the Seleukus era, and the rule to determine the average oval of the sun and moon using the Jewish calendar. Not all rules are enforced at 835.
In 921, Aaron ben MeÃÆ'¯r proposed a change to the calendar. Although the proposal was rejected, they indicated that all rules of the modern calendar (except for the times) existed before that date. In 1000, Muslim chronologist al-Biruni described all the modern rules of the Hebrew calendar, except that he defined three different epochs used by different Jewish communities into one, two, or three years later than the modern period.
There is a tradition, first mentioned by Hai Gaon (d. 1038 AD), that Hillel b. R. Judah "in the year 670 of the Seleucid era" (ie, 358-359 CE) is responsible for a new calendar with fixed intercalation cycles. The later writers, like Nachmanides, explain the words of Hai Gaon which means that the entire calendar count is due to Hillel b. Judah in response to the Jewish persecution. Maimonides, in the 12th century, declared that the Mishnaic calendar was used "until the time of Abaye and Rava", which evolved c. 320-350 CE, and that the change took place when "the land of Israel was destroyed, and no permanent tribunal remained." Taken together, these two traditions show that Hillel b. Judah (whom they identified with the fourth-century Jewish leader Ioulos, evidenced in the letter of the Emperor Julian, and the Jewish patriarch Ellel, mentioned by Epiphanius) instituted the Hebrew calendar counted for persecution. H. Graetz attributes calendar recognition to computation with sharp repression after the failed Jewish revolt that took place during the reign of the Christian empire of Constantius and Gallus. A later writer, S. Lieberman, argued that the introduction of a fixed calendar was due to actions taken by Christian Roman authorities to prevent Jewish patriarchs from sending calendar envoys.
Both traditions are Hillel b. Judah instituted complete complete calendars, and the theory that calculated calendars were introduced due to oppression or persecution, has been questioned. Furthermore, two Jewish dates during the post-Talmud period (especially in 506 and 776) are not possible under the rules of the modern calendar, indicating that the arithmetic rules were developed in Babylonia during the time of Geonim (7th to 8th centuries). The Babylonian rule requires delays on the first day of Tishrei when a new moon occurs after noon.
The Talmud, however, shows at least the beginning of the transition from pure empirical to a calculated calendar. According to a statement attributed to Yose, an Amora who lived during the second half of the 3rd century, Purim's party, 14 Adar, could not fall on the Sabbath or Monday, perhaps 10 Tishrei (Yom Kippur) fell on Friday or Sunday. This indicates that, at the time of the conversion of the Jerusalem Talmud (circa AD 400), there were a number of days in certain months from Adar to Elul, also implying that the supplementary month was already a second Added before the regular Adar. In another passage, a wise is reported to have counseled "those who made calculations" not to set the first day of Tishrei or Willow Tree Day on the Sabbath. This shows that there are groups that "make calculations" and are in a position to control, to some extent, the day on which Rosh Hashanah will fall.
Use in contemporary Israel
The early Zionist pioneers were impressed by the fact that the calendar that Jews conserved for centuries in a distant diaspora, as a matter of religious ritual, adapted to their home country climate: the Jewish New Year marks the transition from dry season to wet season, and massive holidays Jews such as Sukkot, Easter, and Shavuot correspond to the main points of the country's agricultural year such as planting and harvesting.
Therefore, at the beginning of the 20th century the Hebrew calendar was reinterpreted as an agricultural calendar rather than a religious one.
After the creation of the State of Israel, the Hebrew calendar became one of Israel's official calendars, along with the Gregorian calendar. Holidays and memorials not originating from previous Jewish tradition should be corrected according to the date of the Hebrew calendar. For example, Israel's Independence Day falls on 5 Iyar, Jerusalem Reunification Day on 28 Iyar, Yom HaAliyah on 10 Nisan, and Holocaust Remembrance Day on 27 Nisan.
Nevertheless, since the 1950s the use of the Hebrew calendar has steadily declined, supporting the Gregorian calendar. Nowadays, Israelis - except the religious ones - conduct their private and public lives according to the Gregorian calendar, although the Hebrew calendar is still widely recognized, appearing in public places such as banks (where it is legal to use on checks and other documents , though rarely do people use this option) and on newspaper mastheads.
The Jewish New Year (Rosh Hashanah) is a two-day public holiday in Israel. However, since the 1980s, more and more secular Israelis are celebrating the Gregorian New Year (commonly known as "Silvester Night" - "????????") on the night of December 31st and January 1st. The prominent rabbis have several times sharply criticized this practice, but without any noticeable effect on secular celebrities.
The common wall calendars used in Israel are hybrids. Most are organized according to Gregorian than the Jewish month, but begin in September, when Jewish New Year usually falls, and gives Jewish dates in small characters.
Other practices
Outside Rabbinic Judaism, the evidence shows a diversity of practices.
Karaite Calendar
Karaite uses the lunar and solar months, but the Karaite calendar differs from the current Rabini calendar in several ways. The Karaite calendar is identical to the Rabinic calendar used before the Sanhedrin changed the Rabbinic calendar from the lunar calendar, based on observations, to the calendar, based mathematically, used in today's Rabbinic Judaism.
In the lunar calendar of Karaite, the beginning of each month, Rosh Chodesh, can be counted, but confirmed by observations in Israel about the first sighting of the new moon. This can produce an occasional maximum variation of one day, depending on the inability to observe the new moon. Days are usually "picked up" in the next month.
The addition of a leap month (Adar II) is determined by observing in Israel the ripening of barley at a certain stage (defined by the Karaite tradition) (called aviv), rather than using a calculated and repaired calendar of rabbinic Judaism. Sometimes this results in Karaite being one month ahead of other Jews using a calculated rabbinic calendar. The "lost" month will be "picked up" in the next cycle when Karaite will observe the leap month while the other Jews do not.
Furthermore, seasonal deviations of the rabbin calendar are avoided, so the years affected by the shift begin one month earlier in the Karaite calendar.
Also, four rules of delaying the rabbinic calendar are not applied, as they are not mentioned in the Tanakh. This may affect the observed date for all Jewish holidays in a given year by one or two days.
In the Middle Ages many Karaite Jews outside of Israel followed the calculated rabbinic calendar, since it was impossible to extract accurate aviv barli data from the land of Israel. However, since the founding of the State of Israel, and especially since the Six Day War, the Karaite Jews who have made aliyah can now again use the observation calendar.
Samaritan Calendar
The Samaria community calendar also depends on the lunar and solar months. The calculation of the Samaritan calendar has historically been kept secret for the priestly families only, and is based on the observation of a new crescent moon. Recently, a Samaritan High Priest from the 20th century transferred calculations to a computer algorithm. High Priest currently confirms the results twice a year, and then distributes the calendar to the community.
The period of the Samaritan calendar is the year of the entry of the Children of Israel into the Land of Israel with Joshua. The Easter Month is the first month of the Samaritan calendar, but the number of years increases in the sixth month. As in the Rabbinic calendar, there are seven leap years in every 19-year cycle. However, the calendar of Rabbinik and Samaritan calendars is not synchronized, so the Samaritan festival - not the same as the Rabbinic festival of the Torah - is often one month from the date according to the Rabbinic calendar. Moreover, as in the Karaite calendar, the Samaritan calendar does not apply four rules of delay, as they are not mentioned in the Tanakh. This may affect the observed date for all Jewish holidays in a given year by one or two days.
Qumran Calendar
Many Dead Sea Scrolls (Qumran) have references to unique calendars, used by people there, who are often regarded as Essenes.
This calendar year uses the ideal Mesopotamian calendar of the twelve month 30-days, which added 4 days at the turning point and solstice (the cardinal point), making a total of 364 days.
There is some ambiguity about whether the cardinal days are at the beginning of the month or at the end, but the most obvious calendar approval gives a four year season, each having three months 30, 30, and 31 days with an extra cardinal day on end, with a total of 91 days, or exactly 13 weeks. Each season begins on the 4th day of the week (Wednesday), every year. (Ben-Dov, Head of All Years , pp.Ã, 16-17)
With just 364 days, it is clear that the calendar will after a few years become very different from the actual season, but nothing indicates what has been done about this issue. Various suggestions have been made by scholars. One is that nothing is done and the calendar is allowed to change with respect to the season. Another suggestion is that changes are made irregularly, only when seasonal anomalies are too large to be ignored for longer. (Ben-Dov, Head of All Years , pp. 19-20)
Writings often discuss the moon, but the calendar is not based on more moon movements than moon phase indications on modern western calendars indicating that it is a lunar calendar. The latest analysis of one of the last remaining scrolls to be described has revealed its relation to this calendar and that the sect uses the word tekufah to identify each of the four special days marking the transition between seasons.
Persian civil calendar
The calendar evidence for the post-papal period of Persia is found in the papyri of the Jewish colony at Elephantine, in Egypt. These documents indicate that the Jewish community of Elephantine uses the Egyptian and Babylonian calendars.
The Sardica Easter Table shows that the Jewish community in some eastern cities, perhaps Antioch, used a calendar scheme that made Nisan 14 within the boundary of Julian's March. Some dates in the document are obviously corrupt, but can be replicated to make sixteen years in the table consistent with regular intercalation schemes. Peter, the bishop of Alexandria (beginning of the 4th century CE), mentioned that the Jews in his city "held their Passover according to the moon's journey in Phamenoth, or according to the third month of each month in Pharmuthi", indicating an adequate intercalation scheme consistent that made Nisan 14 roughly between Phamenoth 10 (March 6 in the 4th century AD) and Pharmuthi 10 (April 5). Jewish cemetery inscriptions from Zoar, south of the Dead Sea, dated from the 3rd century to the 5th century, show that when the years are interspersed, the leap month is at least sometimes a recurring month of the Adar. However, the inscriptions do not show a clear pattern of regular interconnection, nor do they show consistent rules for determining the beginning of the lunar month.
In 1178, Maimonides included all the rules for the countless calendar and the basis of their scriptures, including the modern year in his work, Mishneh Torah . Today, the rules detailed in the Maimonides code are codes commonly used by Jewish communities around the world.
astronomical calculations
Sinode Month - molad interval
The "new moon" (astronomically called lunar conjunction and, in Hebrew, a molad) is a moment in which the sun and moon are horizontally aligned to the north-south line (technically, they have the same ecliptic longitude). The period between two new moons is a synodic month. The actual length of the synodic month varies from about 29 days 6 hours and 30 minutes (29.27 days) to about 29 days and 20 hours (29.83 days), the variation range is about 13 hours and 30 minutes. Thus, for comfort, the long-term average length, identical to the ancient synodal moon (also called the molad interval) is used. The molad interval is day, or 29 days, 12 hours, and 793 "parts" (1 "section" = 1 / (Ie, 29.530594 days), and the same value was determined by the Babylonians in System B they were about 300 BC and adopted by the Greek astronomer Hipparchus in the 2nd century BC and by the astronomer Alexandria Ptolemy at Almagest four centuries later (quoting Hipparchus as the source). Its extraordinary accuracy (less than a second of its true value) is thought to have been achieved using the lunar eclipse records from the 8th to 5th centuries BC.
This value is as close as possible to the correct value of 29.530589 days as possible future values ​​are rounded to all "sections". The discrepancy makes the molad interval about 0.6 seconds too long. In other words, if the molad is taken as the average conjunction time on some reference references, then this reference reference drifts slowly eastward. If this reference meridian deviation is traced back to the middle of the 4th century, the traditional date of the calendar's introduction remains, it is found corresponding to the longitude between the Nile and the Euphrates. Modern molad moments correspond to the average solar time of the moon's conjunction moment near the Kandahar longitude, Afghanistan, over 30 ° east of Jerusalem.
Furthermore, the difference between the interval of molad and the month average of si
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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